Cash college sex

Wendy D. Hoyt (1)

The purpose of this study was to examine body image and relationship satisfaction in male and female college students. A total of 101 males and 187 females, primarily Caucasian and middle class, completed a questionnaire designed to measure satisfaction with specific body parts, overall body characteristics, and relationship status. These variables were examined in light of gender and body size differences. Results indicated that women, especially those under or above average weight, were more dissatisfied with their appearance than were men, whereas men were more dissatisfied with their relationships and sex lives than were women. In addition, those body parts with which each gender was most dissatisfied were consistent with the body parts emphasized through "ideal" images. These results are discussed in relation to gender role dynamics and societal pressures.

The idea that women in today's society are generally dissatisfied with their appearance is not a new one. Research has repeatedly shown that, over the past 30 years, American women have become increasingly dissatisfied with their physical appearance. Not surprisingly, images in print and film media have depicted thinner and thinner women during this same time period. The relationship between these two phenomena has been difficult to elucidate. However, recent studies have provided convincing evidence that media images play a significant role in how women feel about their bodies (Grogan, 1999; Grogan, Williams, & Conner, 1996; Stice, Schupak-Neuberg, Shaw, & Stein, 1994), and Stice et al. (1994) found that media consumption does indeed have a direct link with the development of eating disorder symptoms. In addition, the media has a tendency to link good looks with social desirability, particularly as it relates to sexual relationships (Eagly et al., 1991). Little research to date, however, has focused on the r ole of body dissatisfaction in interpersonal relationships. Although some researchers have linked disordered eating with impaired sexual relationships, rarely have researchers examined the relationship between one's body satisfaction and one's satisfaction in peer and romantic relationships. Thus, this study was designed not only to update information regarding body dissatisfaction in men and women, but to provide further information about the relationship between body and relationship satisfaction.

Body image has been defined in numerous ways; however, most agree that body image is multidimensional, and includes physiological, psychological, and sociological components (Cash, 1994; Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990; Parks & Read, 1997). In general, body image is one's attitude towards one's body, particularly its size, shape, and aesthetics (Cash & Pruzinsky, 1990); it refers to individuals' evaluations and affective experiences regarding their physical attributes (Cash, 1994; Cash, Ancis, & Strachan, 1997). Garner (1997) states:

Perhaps one of the issues that makes weight so very important for women, in comparison to men, is the realization that men emphasize physical attractiveness significantly more than do women when choosing a partner for a sexual, short-term, or long-term relationship (Buss, 1994; Feingold, 1990; Jackson, 1992; Lundy, Tan, & Cunningham, 1998; Townsend & Levy, 1998; Wiederman & Hurst, 1997). In comparison to women, men have been shown to be much less willing to enter a relationship requiring a high level of personal investment when their prospective partner is perceived as unattractive (Townsend & Levy, 1998). Many researchers have tried to determine what role weight, waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), breast size, and hip size play in men's ratings of women's physical attractiveness. It has been repeatedly shown that men rate women with low WHRs as being more attractive, feminine and healthy, and that overweight women are typically stigmatized, particularly with regard to issues of sexuality and dating (Regan, 1996; Sobal, Nicolopoulos, & Lee, 1995; Wiederman & Hurst, 1997, 1998). In addition to having a low WHR, women are rated as being most attractive when they have a slender figure, small hips, and large breasts (Singh & Young, 1995), a combination that is impossible for many to achieve without the help of plastic surgery.

Body image is influenced by feelings and it actively influences much of our behavior, self-esteem, and psychopathology. Our body perceptions, feelings, and beliefs govern our life plan--who we meet, who we marry, the nature of our interactions, our day-to-day comfort level. Indeed, our body is our personal billboard, providing others with first--and sometimes only--impressions. (p. 30)

As is illustrated by the sheer number of studies related to female body image, the subject is clearly a significant issue for women in today's society. In fact, women's dissatisfaction with their bodies has been termed by some as "normative discontent" (Thompson, Heinberg, Altabe, & Tantleff-Dunn, 1999). Being dissatisfied with one's body now seems the norm for women in the United States. Unfortunately, at the same time, unhealthy eating practices have also become the norm for women in the United States to the extent that some call dieting "normal" for women (Polivy & Herman, 1987). The link between these now "normal" thoughts and behaviors has been long noticed. Body image has repeatedly been identified as the most important factor in the development of eating disorders, and body dissatisfaction is the most consistent predictor of the development of an eating disorder (Bruch, 1962; Thompson et al., 1999). Jackson (1992) indicated that, over the lifespan, women are significantly more dissatisfied with their b ody image than are men, and this is largely due to the belief that they are overweight, even when they are of average or below average weight.

Not surprisingly, men also rate physically attractive women as being those with whom they would most willingly enter a short-term or long-term relationship. In a review of the "physical attractiveness stereotype," Eagly, Ashmore, Makhijani, and Longo (1991) found that physical attractiveness has a very significant impact on perceived social competence (i.e., sociability, popularity, etc.). Overall, perceived obesity seems to be the most negative factor for men choosing a partner (Singh & Young, 1995). Townsend and Levy (1998) found that men emphasize physical attractiveness in a potential sexual partner to such a great extent that they are unwilling to enter any type of relationship if the woman is not deemed to be desirable as a sex partner. Indeed, men seem to decide based on sexual attractiveness alone with whom they are interested in pursuing a sexual relationship, and it is not until the later stages of a relationship that the woman's other personal characteristics become important. Evolutionary psycholo gists have argued the reasoning for men's preferences from a number of angles (see Singh, 1995; Townsend & Levy, 1998), but the bottom line is that women receive the messages that thinness equals attractiveness, and are therefore inclined to pursue the ideal image portrayed in the media to increase the chances of finding a partner.

But what role does body image play, once relationships are formed? Anderson and Cyranowski (1995) proposed and tested the concept of sexual schema in women. They reported that "women with a positive sexual schema, relative to those with a negative schema, view themselves as emotionally romantic or passionate and as women who are behaviorally open to romantic and sexual relationships and experiences" (p. 1094). In addition, women with positive sexual self-schemas were more likely to have engaged in sexual relationships and experienced sexual arousal. It is reasonable to expect that a woman who feels positively about her own body is more likely to be comfortable in sexual relationships than is a woman who does not, regardless of how others rate her attractiveness. Indeed, Wiederman and Hurst (1997) found that women's sexual self-schemas were not related to overall body dissatisfaction or thinness, but that it was the individual's sense of feeling attractive that mattered. However, the authors also note that soc ial avoidance as a result of appearance concerns did negatively affect sexual self-schema.